Schedule & Talks

Indonesia is the largest producer of Eucheumatoid seaweeds, however, production constraints include the declining quality of seaweeds, particularly reduced gel strength, as well as variation in production and product quality between farming sites and across seasons. Furthermore, there are limited examples of controlled experiments evaluating these issues at farm sites nor in a standardised manner. This presentation describes the outcomes of R&D by Loka Riset Budidaya Rumput Laut (Centre for Seaweed Culture Research and Development, Gorontalo) on key production constraints for Kappaphycus, funded by the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research. The objective of the work was to improve the quality of seaweeds produced at the farm level by focusing on molecular identification of cultivars across Indonesia and the evaluation of production and product quality in farm-scale production trials over 3 years. Key outputs during this time include genetic diversity analysis of cultivated Kappaphycus in Indonesian seaweed farms using COI gene, assessment of growth and product quality of Kappaphycus using standard techniques at different farming locations in Indonesia, the collection of Kappaphycus cultivars from throughout Indonesia and evaluation of growth and product quality using a common garden approach, and the demonstration of the ability to rejuvenate “old” strains of Kappaphycus and assessment of “superior” strains in other locations.

Optimizing the seed production process is very important for the success of seaweed cultivation. Red seaweed can reproduce by spores. Spores are part of the seaweed life cycle; they are single-celled and function like the seeds of vascular plants. There are various potential advantages of using spores as seeds in the seaweed cultivation industry, especially in the red algae or Rodophyta. A series of studies on the effect of salinity, temperature, light colour, and type of artificial substrate on Kappaphycus alvarezii spore release and development were carried out in 2013 and 2014 at Hasanuddin University, followed in 2015 by experiments on growing spores into adult plants in the sea in Takalar Regency, South Sulawesi. Both temperature (optimal range 31-35 °C) and salinity (optimal range 30-35 ppt) had a significant effect on spore release, survival as well as plantlet growth and morphology, while green light proved unsuitable. In the sea, high quality thallus was produced in around 8 weeks. Predation by fish, crabs, and molluscs was a challenge. Once pest problems were overcome the seedlings grew well. They were densely branched with relatively large branch diameter and pointed tips, a turgid dense texture and a bright shiny colour, characteristic of good quality seaweed seeds. After 12 weeks of co-cultivation with seaweed farmers, the harvested yield of seaweed from spore-grown seeds was clearly superior to that from vegetative thallus cuttings in terms of quality (e.g. colour and branch morphology) as well as quantity. Spore-based culture shows great promise for K. alvarezii as well as other seaweeds, including Gracilaria sp. 

Eucheumatoid cultivation continues to expand with a variety of methods that can increase production. However, new cultivation approaches are rarely reported. This study examines new methods of seaweed cultivation in floating cages/nets including: horizontal net, vertical net, basket net and longnet. The research was conducted from March to November 2019 in the coastal waters of Baubau, one of the prime seaweed cultivation areas in Southeast Sulawesi Province, Indonesia. The growth rate of Kappaphycus alvarezii in these floating cage variants was assessed, and compared with the traditional longline approach. Propagule wet weight was measured daily to document growth rates. The results show that K. alvarezii grew faster with better thallus morphology in the floating cages than using longline cultivation. Daily production and specific growth rates (SGR) of K. alvarezii were higher for cultivation in the floating cages than on longlines. Moreover, cultivation in floating cages not only improved growth rate but also protected the seaweed from attack (grazing) by herbivores, especially herbivorous fish such as siganids.

One of the constraints on K. alvarezii cultivation in Indonesia is the decrease in production during the summer season. Water quality parameters such as temperature and light intensity will change between seasons. We investigated the effects of temperature and light intensity on the production of K. alvarezii (brown type) over the summer season by observing photosynthetic activity based on the level of chlorophyll fluorescence measured by PAM (Pulse Amplitude Modulated) Imaging. Photosynthetic parameters of Maximum Quantum Yield (F_v/F_m) and Effective Quantum Yield (Φ_PSII) were observed in order to determine the photosynthetic-stress and the potential for recovery of affected seaweed. Based on the F_v/F_m value, K. alvarezii could not recover after experiencing photosynthetic-stress at the higher temperature (34 ᵒC) and higher light intensity (1,000 mol photons m^-2 s^-1) levels. We found that Φ_PSII was 0 e^– per photon at light intensity of 1000 mol photon m^-2 s^-1 and at temperatures of 20, 27 and 34 ᵒC. Based on temperature and light intensity recorded in seaweed farming areas around South Sulawesi, the findings show that conditions prevalent are often outside the range suitable for K. alvarezii photosynthetic activity, especially during the summer season.

Carrageenan is a natural carbohydrate obtained from red seaweed of carrageenanophytes. It is formed by alternate units of D-galactose and 3,6-anhydro-D-galactose, with ester-sulfate groups in different position of saccharide units. Bio-refinery technologies are very useful to control the degradation and get exactly the carrageenan oligosaccharide structure that you want.
The enzyme used for biodegradation is called carrageenase. In our research, one marine bacterium which can degrade carrageenan has been isolated and identified as Zobellia galactanivorans. The cloning and sequencing of the κ-carrageenase gene, and the expression of the recombinant κ-carrageenase were carried out both in E. coli and Pichia pastoris. The recombinant enzyme was used to comprehensive utilize the seaweed of Kappaphycus, and the potential application of three products were carried out. The carrageenan sulfatase has high desulfurization rate which can remove the sulfate from the molecules and form the anhydro-bond. Researches were carried out to develop different sulfatases with substrate specificity.
Carrageenophytes are abundant in tropical area. By development of biorefinery technology, we can obtain various kinds of carrageenan product that can be used in feed, functional food, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals, and thus greatly improve the economic value of Carrageenophytes.

Malaysia harbours an extensive coastline of 4,675 km with 418 000 km2 of continental shelf area which provides natural habitats for the marine seaweeds. Currently, there is a total of 402 taxa of seaweeds being recorded which comprising Chlorophyta (13 families, 110 taxa), Rhodophyta (27 families, 189 taxa), Phaeophyta (8 families, 86 taxa) and Cyanophyta (8 families, 17 taxa). Hence, these have provided natural ecosystem for farming seaweeds in Malaysia. In fact, Kappaphycus alvarezii (Doty) L.M.Liao, the main cultivar of eucheumatoid was first described from Karindingan Island on Creagh Reef, Sabah. The seaweeds cultivation of Eucheumatoids was initiated in the 1970s at Semporna, Sabah with the assistance from Maxwell Doty and teams but it was not successful as then traditional methods were used which resulted in low productivity.  From the 1980s, the government took over the project by giving various assistance to the farmers as well funding for research & development, these have subsequently increased the production of eucheumatoids in Sabah and established the seaweed aquaculture in Sabah.  Today, Malaysia is the world’s third largest producer for eucheumatoids but there is a declined of production since 2012.  Studies have shown that there could be due to several factors that might possibly cause the decline of the production. In this paper, we will discuss the factors as well as suggestions to mitigate the problems in achieving a sustainable aquaculture industry in Malaysia. 

Here are 9 species of Eucheuma distributed in Hainan, Xisha islands and Taiwan in China, and Eucheuma striatum and Eucheuma gelatinae are mainly farmed in Hainan island early in the 1980’s. Eucheuma striatum was firstly introduced by Prof. Wu Chaoyuan from the Philippines in 1985, and successful cultivation was implemented, but no successful achievements were made since that case. This was probably mainly because of unfavorable cultivation conditions, carrageenan derived red seaweed as feeder by basket fish, and the rising labor cost, etc. China is now become the largest carrageenan exporter country on global market. There are still facing the challenge on strains selection and parameters optimization for ecological cultivation to those in Southeast countries. Moreover, high water retention carrageenan, highly acid resistant carrageenan, and dietary fiber developments and applications, especially to the capsule usage are highly required. It is deserve to enhance the governmental encouragements to promote cultivation in the Southeast countries, to conduct the new product development from carrageenan, certainly this will rely on the multiple disciplines integration for genetic, physiological and pathological studies of these carrageenophytic red seaweeds, and strengthen the regional and global cooperation in applied research and application.

The Chilean Gracilaria chilensis (now named Agarophyton chilense), has been cultivated in Chile since 1980, after the collapse of natural populations due to overharvesting. Cultivation is extensive, dominated by small-scale, artisanal farms. Cultivation is achieved by clonal propagation, after replanting part of the harvested biomass. This practice, together with over-harvesting, led to a strong genetic erosion, and most farms are dominated by one or very few clones. Since 2000, biomass production is decaying in Chile, a trend attributed to the loss of biomass quality (i.e., reduced growth rates and epiphytic load). Epiphytes are highly diverse in terms of species composition and the impacts they cause to the host. We proposed a classification of these impact and show that many are causing observable diseases to their host. Besides the low genetic diversity, it is possible to detect resistant strains in farms. This resistance is expressed by the reduction of germination rates and development of epiphytes on Gracilaria’s surface. It is associated with the activation of metabolic pathways triggered by the hydroxylation of fatty acids, and the resistance can be induced by the use of these molecules. We are now exploring the genomic regulation of these pathways and the role of genetic diversity in modulating the spread of epiphytes withing farms. We also investigate how cultivation practices drive the domestication of G. chilensis, and what strategies could provide better resilience to environmental variability and epiphytism.

The farming of the eucheumatoids Kappaphycus and Eucheuma will be driven by an increase in global demand for carrageenan and natural products, consistent with healthier lifestyles and better living standards. In addition to improvements in farming technique and technology, the use of molecular methods is also essential in the pursuit of greater and more sustainable yields. Over the past few decades, the use of DNA-based molecular markers has greatly improved our understanding on these morphologically plastic seaweeds, stemming from simple yet accurate identification and classification of species, strains or cultivars throughout the world. The application of this knowledge is also crucial in documenting the biodiversity of eucheumatoids, detection of bioinvasion and selection of cultivars with better carrageenan yields, growth rate, disease resistance, tolerance towards climate change etc. The present study highlights the milestones achieved in the molecular taxonomy of Kappaphycus and Eucheuma, as well as general challenges and future recommendations associated with the field.

The global demand for the carrageenophyte Kappaphycus is steadily increasing but its overall productivity, carrageenan quality, and disease resistance are gradually declining. In the face of this dilemma, wild Kappaphycus populations and natural selective breeding are viewed as possible sources of new cultivars that could potentially enhance production and phycocolloid yield and quality. Therefore, assessment of their diversity is crucial. Morphological and genetic diversity of wild Kappaphycus species obtained from two sites in the Philippines recorded novel haplotypes along with other published haplotypes. These newly recognized haplotypes indicate a reservoir of unutilized wild genotypes in the Philippines, which could be taken advantage of in developing new cultivars with superior traits. Moreover, natural selective breeding of progenies derived from sexual and meiotic spore production can produce new generations of tetrasporophytes and gametophytes, for assessment of desirable phenotypes. 

Disruptions associated with the COVID-19 pandemic increased the difficulty of monitoring seaweed production in Indonesia. This talk provides an overview of recent research using satellite imagery to monitor seaweed production over time in Pangkep, South Sulawesi. The talk discusses the usefulness of satellite data in monitoring the industry remotely, as well as the range of challenges and limitations associated with its use.

Seaweed extracts for agricultural crops have long been used with high success. Their global market value is indeed high primarily due to the manifold benefits derived. Recently, seaweed extracts were applied in seaweed from micropropagation specifically for tissue culture, and also in land-sea-based nurseries and field cultivation, and also disease, epi-endophytes mitigation, as well as improvements for hydrocolloid (carrageenan) qualities. Applications of seaweed extracts were first used to benefit Ulva, Kappaphycus and Eucheuma spp., but more recently the same technology has been tested with other red seaweeds, e.g.,  Eucheumatopsis, Gracilaria and Laurencia as well as the brown seaweed Saccharina. 
This presentation deals mainly with published applications of an extract from the brown seaweed Ascophyllum nodosum to eucheumatoids, i.e., Kappaphycus and Eucheuma spp. This discourse hopefully points the way to further research and innovations on a wider variety of commercially cultivated seaweeds. In particular, work is required to emulate the understanding gained from applications of phycostimulants to land plants and understand the varied modes of actions of various types of extracts, i.e., the algal-based, molecular pathways which determine production, quality  and also mitigate abiotic and biotic stresses such as diseases and epi-endophytes in the eucheumatoids  – all mechanisms which are poorly understood at present, but which are key to future phyconomic sustainability and prosperity.

Indonesia has a high potential in terms of seaweed species diversity. The Siboga Expedition (1899) recorded 782 species comprising 196 species of Chlorophyta, 134 species of Pheophyta and 452 species of Rhodophyta. Ethnobotany and ethnopharmacological studies have been carried out in several areas to determine the species commonly consumed as food and used for herbal medicine. In 2019, Tri Handayami updated the data with details of 201 species of Chlorophyta, 138 species of Pheophyta and 564 species of Rhodophyta to a total of 903 species. Despite this diversity, relatively few species have been cultivated and commercialized. These include several species of Carrageenophytes (Kappaphycus alvarezii, Eucheuma denticulatum, Kappaphycus striatus) and Agarophytes (Gracilaria changii, Gracilaria verucosa etc.). The harvest is both absorbed by the domestic industry and exported. Some species are harvested from nature but have not been cultivated, such as Sargassum sp. and Gelidium sp. and are used for a variety of purposes (food, feed and others), while Caulerpa sp. and Ulva sp. recently began to be cultivated. The processing industry is developing, and is now producing several carrageenan and agar products, and several special application products (e.g. with blending), both for domestic use and for export. Innovation is needed for sustainability and increasing the competitiveness of Indonesia’s seaweed industry by promoting the national programs supported by fostering a “national seaweed industry innovation and competitiveness ecosystem”, within the penta-helix (government, business, academia, civil society/community and the media) collaboration paradigm.

The Centre of Excellence for Development and Utilization of Seaweed (CEDUS) is one of the CoEs at Universitas Hasanuddin (Unhas) and is the only CoE in Indonesia that specifically focuses on seaweed. The establishment of the CEDUS in Unhas is based on the potential of South Sulawesi as a major seaweed cultivation and trading centre in Indonesia, in addition to the fact that Unhas has experts in various aspects of seaweed research and development. In 2005-2007 Unhas pioneered seaweed cultivation in South Sulawesi. In 2012, together with other eight stakeholder groups (government agencies, universities, research institutes and private sector), Unhas initiated the establishment of the Seaweed Research and Development Centre Consortium (KP3RL). The KP3RL focused on seeking new/improved seaweed varieties, providing superior seeds and cultivating them in the coastal waters around South Sulawesi. This has strengthened the position of South Sulawesi as the largest producer of seaweed in Indonesia with a production of 3.67 million tons per year, contributing around 30-35% of national production. According to a recent report by the Australia-Indonesia Centre, South Sulawesi accounted for around 11% of the total world seaweed production in 2017. In 2018, the KP3RL was transformed into the CEDUS, partnering with Indonesian and overseas institutions. The vision of the CEDUS is to become a leading centre for seaweed research and development in Indonesia by 2025, with the following missions: (1) To master seaweed science and technology as a prime mover in achieving sustainable development; (2) To Increase added value and conserve natural resources through technological mastery; (3) To participate in educating the nation through the application of seaweed science and technology; (4) To improve the performance and good governance of the CoE. CEDUS research on many aspects of seaweed has been published in reputable journals. CEDUS also fosters around 200 seaweed communities that have produced many innovative products. Various seaweed inventions owned/patented by CEDUS include the production of biosugar, bioethanol, capsules, anti-aging cosmetics, high protein seaweed, and technology to increase the production of seaweed products. To achieve the CEDUS objectives, these inventions are a top priority for further development through collaboration. This includes cooperation on seaweed cultivation and utilization of high protein seaweed as a protein food for the future, and there are many other opportunities for collaboration on seaweed-related development, especially through downstream programs. The CEDUS has high hopes that this workshop will open the door for such cooperation

Seaweed innovations will be crucial for the sustainable development of our coastlines with opportunities to enhance economic, environmental and social wellbeing impacts in Indonesia. This talk describes the outcomes of a recently completed (2016-2021) Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research funded project on seaweed production and processing in Indonesia with Balai Besar Riset Pengolahan Produk dan Bioteknologi Kelautan dan Perikanan (Research and Development Centre for Marine and Fisheries Product Processing and Biotechnology, Jakarta), Loka Riset Budidaya Rumput Laut (Centre for Seaweed Culture Research and Development, Gorontalo), Balai Perikanan Budidaya Air Payau (Brackishwater Aquaculture Development Centre, Takalar and Ujung Batee), Hasanuddin University (Makassar) and Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Kelautan (College of Marine Technology, Makassar).

An overview of project publications is presented including analysing the value chains for established red seaweeds Kappaphycus/Eucheuma, understanding the socio-economic benefits for women from community-scale processing, identifying existing and emerging species of seaweed using molecular barcoding techniques, improving the quality of Kappaphycus/Eucheuma produced at the farm level to enhance gel yields, identifying new product opportunities for seaweeds that can be developed domestically, developing new processing techniques for seaweeds, developing innovative methods to manage processing waste streams from seaweeds, and evaluating food and health applications for seaweeds.

Seaweeds have been the leading farmed aquatic commodity in the Philippines, comprising 64% of the total national aquaculture production in 20191. However, the production levels in the last decade for eucheumatoid seaweeds, including Kappaphycus spp. and Eucheuma denticulatum, have been declining. Two of the factors affecting seaweed production was the reported outbreaks of disease and pests. However, data on the prevalence of these seaweed health problems at the farm level have been limited. In situ assessment of 16 farms located in major seaweed growing areas in the Philippines, including Palawan, Bohol, Davao del Norte, Zamboanga City and Tawi-Tawi, were conducted. Results revealed the prevalence of ice-ice disease (IID) on all sites, encompassing the species farmed and the culture techniques employed. Also, pests such as epiphytic filamentous algae (EFA) and macro-algae (Sargassum, Ulva and Gracilaria), black spots and grazing were observed in the farms. The widespread prevalence of these problems at the farm level warrants extensive studies to determine the factors that affect the seaweed’s susceptibility to these yield-limiting disease and pests. Proactive and immediate mitigating strategies should be implemented to prevent the further spread of these problems and not to compromise the future and sustainability of the seaweed aquaculture industry in the Philippines.

The continuous occurrence of diseases and pests on the eucheumatoid seaweed farming may potentially reduce the production capacity. Applying biosecurity concept in the eucheumatoid aquaculture practice is assisting the aquaculture industry to manage biosecurity risk posed by diseases and pests, and reduces the emergence and spread. To know biosecurity aspects that implement in the eucheumatoid farming, we assessed biosecurity measures of crop-care and farm management practices by seaweed farmer and evaluate the effectiveness of biosecurity measures when applied in the small scale of Kappaphycus farming. The assessment of biosecurity measure practices was done in three Malaysia’s seaweed aquaculture productive areas and 67 seaweed farmers were involved. Farmers were surveyed on their knowledge, attitude and practices toward biosecurity. Results highlighted that most of the farmers do not understand about introduction of disease and pests in their farm, thus make the crop-care and farm management toward biosecurity practices were poor implemented in farm by the farmers. Field observation for evaluating the effectiveness of biosecurity measures in farm practices showed that biosecurity measures of cleaning treatment on crop and farm ropes from macroalgae epiphytes, epi-endophyte and biofilm coverage, and routine monitoring of crop health, were effective to reduce the ice-ice incidence in Kappaphycus farm.

The growth of the Philippine seaweed industry is constrained by environmental factors such as disease and endo/epiphytic infestations and the impacts are further amplified by the prevailing social and governance issues that limit stakeholders’ access to support services that could help mitigate or prevent the adverse impacts of risks and uncertainties. In this paper, we present key findings of the studies we conducted on the social networks and risk perceptions and risk management strategies of seaweed farmers, traders, and processors in the Philippines. The data used for this study was obtained through a series of focus group discussions (FGDs) with women and men seaweed farmers and key informant interviews with traders and processors. We found that informal relationships (i.e., patron-client relations) serves as the foundation of the Philippine seaweed industry and has helped sustain livelihoods across the value chain. As such, we emphasise the value of gender-differentiated and stakeholder-focused value chain risk analysis in order to account for the differential experiences, behavior patterns, and priorities of stakeholder groups across the industry. Moreover, a stronger government support is critical to enable the industry to manage uncertainties and take advantage of opportunities in domestic and international markets.

Seaweed farming involves a range of uncertainties leaving the seaweed farmer at the mercy of nature. However, learning from advances in modern agriculture and technology, there is a lot that can be done in building the right tools to empower the seaweed farmer to make data-driven decisions. The interventions required are multidisciplinary, drawing expertise from fields as varied as crop breeding to drone imaging to weather forecasting. Bringing about lasting solutions would need collaborations between academia, industries and governments.